SSRAO

Explanation:
Productivity = Output / Input. It measures the efficiency of production, i.e., how much output is obtained per unit of input. Higher productivity means more output for the same input or same output with less input. For example, if a worker produces 50 units in 8 hours, productivity = 50/8 = 6.25 units/hour.

Explanation:
Partial productivity measures the ratio of output to a single input factor. Labour productivity = Total output / Labour input is the most common partial productivity measure. Other partial productivity measures include Capital productivity = Output / Capital input and Material productivity = Output / Material input. Total factor productivity (TFP) considers all inputs simultaneously.

Explanation:
Initial labour productivity = 500/25 = 20 units/worker/day. New labour productivity = 500/20 = 25 units/worker/day. Percentage increase = (25-20)/20 x 100 = 25%. The same output is now produced with fewer workers.

Explanation:
Efficiency = (Standard hours produced / Actual hours worked) x 100%. It measures how well actual performance compares to the standard. Efficiency > 100% means the worker performs better than standard. Utilization = Actual hours worked / Available hours. Performance rating is used during time study to adjust observed time to normal time.

Explanation:
Efficiency = (Standard time / Actual time) x 100% = (50/40) x 100% = 125%. The worker completed the job faster than standard time, so efficiency exceeds 100%. Standard hours produced = 50 min. Actual hours worked = 40 min. Efficiency = 50/40 x 100% = 125%.

Explanation:
Multi-factor productivity (MFP) or Total Factor Productivity (TFP) considers multiple inputs: MFP = Output / (Labour + Capital + Materials + Energy + Other inputs). All inputs are typically converted to monetary values. This gives a more comprehensive measure than partial productivity measures.

Explanation:
Old Productivity = 1000/50000 = 0.02 units/Rs. New Productivity = 1200/55000 = 0.02182 units/Rs. Productivity Index = 0.02182/0.02 = 1.091 approximately 1.09. Output increased by 20% but inputs increased by 10%, so net productivity gain is approximately 9%.

Explanation:
Work Study = Method Study + Work Measurement. Method Study: systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work to develop easier and more effective methods. Work Measurement: application of techniques to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance.

Explanation:
The six steps of Method Study (SREDIM): (1) SELECT the work to be studied; (2) RECORD all relevant facts using charts and diagrams; (3) EXAMINE the recorded facts critically; (4) DEVELOP the most practical, economic, and effective method; (5) INSTALL the new method as standard practice; (6) MAINTAIN the new method and check results.

Explanation:
An Operation Process Chart (OPC) uses only TWO symbols: Circle (O) for Operation and Square for Inspection. OPC shows the sequence of all operations and inspections. It does NOT show transport, delay, or storage. A Flow Process Chart uses all five symbols: Operation, Inspection, Transport, Delay, and Storage.

Explanation:
A Flow Process Chart uses FIVE symbols (ASME standard): O - Operation, Arrow - Transport, Square - Inspection, D - Delay, Triangle - Storage. These five symbols comprehensively capture all activities in a process. The chart can be of three types: Material type, Man type, and Equipment type.

Explanation:
A Man-Machine Chart (Multiple Activity Chart) is used to study the relationship between worker and machine activities. It shows when the worker is working or idle, when the machine is running or idle, the cycle time, and opportunities for reducing idle time. It helps identify machine coupling opportunities.

Explanation:
Critical Examination in Method Study uses the 5W1H questioning technique: PRIMARY questions: WHAT is done? WHY is it done? WHERE is it done? WHEN is it done? WHO does it? HOW is it done? SECONDARY questions: What ELSE could be done? What SHOULD be done? This systematic questioning challenges every aspect of the current method.

Explanation:
Therbligs are the fundamental hand motions identified by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth for micro-motion study. 'Therblig' is 'Gilbreth' spelled backwards. There are 18 therbligs including Search, Find, Select, Grasp, Hold, Transport Loaded, Position, Assemble, Use, Disassemble, Inspect, Pre-position, Release Load, Transport Empty, Rest, Unavoidable Delay, Avoidable Delay, Plan.

Explanation:
Normal Time = Observed Time x Performance Rating Factor. For example, if observed time = 5 minutes and performance rating = 110%, then Normal Time = 5 x 1.10 = 5.5 minutes. Normal time represents the time a worker performing at 100% (normal) pace would take. Standard Time = Normal Time + Allowances.

Explanation:
Standard Time = Normal Time + Allowances = Normal Time x (1 + Allowance fraction). Where Normal Time = Observed Time x Performance Rating. Allowances include Personal allowances (5% typically), Fatigue allowances, and Delay allowances. Standard time is used for production planning, incentive wage calculation, cost estimation, and performance evaluation.

Explanation:
Step 1: Normal Time = Observed Time x Performance Rating = 8 x 1.20 = 9.6 minutes. Step 2: Standard Time = Normal Time x (1 + Allowance fraction) = 9.6 x 1.15 = 11.04 minutes. The performance rating of 120% means the worker is 20% faster than normal, so normal time is higher than observed time.

Explanation:
The Westinghouse System evaluates four factors: (1) SKILL: proficiency in following a given method; (2) EFFORT: will to work, speed of work; (3) CONDITIONS: conditions affecting the operator (temperature, lighting, noise); (4) CONSISTENCY: variation in operator's times. The algebraic sum of all four factors is added to 1.00 to get the performance rating factor.

Explanation:
Allowances in time study: (1) Personal Allowance: time for personal needs (toilet, drinking water) - typically 5% of normal time; (2) Fatigue Allowance: time to recover from physical and mental fatigue; (3) Delay Allowance: unavoidable delays (machine adjustments, material waiting). Total allowance is typically 10-20% of normal time.

Explanation:
Standard Time = Normal Time x (1 + Allowance fraction) = 20 x (1 + 0.25) = 20 x 1.25 = 25 minutes. Alternatively: Allowance time = 25% of 20 = 5 minutes. Standard Time = 20 + 5 = 25 minutes.

Explanation:
n = (Z x s / (e x x_bar))^2 = (1.96 x 2 / (0.05 x 12))^2 = (3.92 / 0.60)^2 = (6.533)^2 = 42.68 approximately 43 observations. Z = 1.96 for 95% confidence, s = 2 min, e = 0.05, x_bar = 12 min.

Explanation:
Work Sampling (Activity Sampling or Ratio Delay Study) is a technique for determining the proportion of time spent by workers or machines in various activities. It involves making a large number of instantaneous observations at random intervals. Developed by L.H.C. Tippett in 1934.

Explanation:
In work sampling: n = Z^2 x p(1-p) / e^2. Where Z = confidence level factor (1.96 for 95%), p = estimated proportion of time in the activity, e = acceptable absolute error. For maximum sample size (p unknown), use p = 0.5 which gives maximum variance p(1-p) = 0.25.

Explanation:
Percentage idle time = (Number of idle observations / Total observations) x 100 = (30/200) x 100 = 15%. The machine was working for 170 observations. Percentage working time = (170/200) x 100 = 85%. This information can be used to improve machine utilization and determine delay allowances.

Explanation:
n = Z^2 x p(1-p) / e^2 = (1.96)^2 x 0.4 x 0.6 / (0.05)^2 = 3.8416 x 0.24 / 0.0025 = 0.9220 / 0.0025 = 368.64 approximately 369 observations. For p = 0.5 (maximum): n = 3.8416 x 0.25 / 0.0025 = 384.

Explanation:
MTM (Methods-Time Measurement) is a Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS) developed by Maynard, Stegemerten, and Schwab in 1948. PMTS establishes standard times for basic human motions based on extensive research. Other PMTS include MOST, MODAPTS, Work Factor, and Basic Motion Timestudy (BMT).

Explanation:
MTM uses TMU (Time Measurement Unit). 1 TMU = 0.00001 hours = 0.0006 minutes = 0.036 seconds. Therefore: 1 hour = 100,000 TMU; 1 minute = 1,667 TMU; 1 second = 27.8 TMU. TMU is a convenient unit for expressing the very small times associated with basic human motions.

Explanation:
MTM basic motions include: Reach (R), Move (M), Turn (T), Apply Pressure (AP), Grasp (G), Position (P), Release (RL), Disengage (D), Eye Travel (ET), Eye Focus (EF), Body/Leg/Foot Motions. 'Think' is NOT a basic motion in MTM because MTM deals with physical motions only. Mental activities are not included in standard MTM tables.

Explanation:
Halsey Premium Plan (F.A. Halsey, 1891): Worker receives a bonus of 50% of the time saved. Earnings = (Time worked x Wage rate) + 50% x (Time saved x Wage rate). Time saved = Standard time - Actual time. The employer retains 50% of time saved as cost reduction.

Explanation:
Rowan Premium Plan (James Rowan, 1898): Bonus = (Time saved / Standard time) x Time worked x Wage rate. Total Earnings = Time worked x Wage rate + Bonus. Key feature: As the worker works faster, the bonus rate decreases, preventing excessive speed. Maximum earnings occur when actual time = 50% of standard time.

Explanation:
Taylor Differential Piece Rate System: Two different piece rates: (1) High piece rate (120% of normal): for workers who meet or exceed standard output; (2) Low piece rate (80% of normal): for workers who fail to meet standard output. This creates a strong incentive to meet the standard.

Explanation:
Gantt Task and Bonus Plan (H.L. Gantt): (1) Below standard output: worker receives guaranteed day wage; (2) At standard output: worker receives day wage + 20% bonus; (3) Above standard output: worker receives high piece rate (120-130% of normal). This plan protects workers from loss due to poor standards and provides strong incentive.

Explanation:
Halsey 50% Plan: Earnings = (Actual time x Wage rate) + 50% x (Time saved x Wage rate). Time saved = 10 - 8 = 2 hours. Earnings = (8 x 50) + 0.5 x (2 x 50) = 400 + 50 = Rs. 450.

Explanation:
Job Evaluation is a systematic process for determining the relative worth of jobs within an organization to establish a rational and equitable wage structure. It evaluates the JOB (not the person) based on factors like skill required, effort required, responsibility, and working conditions.

Explanation:
Merit Rating (Performance Appraisal) evaluates the PERFORMANCE of individual workers (not the job). It is used for salary increases and promotions, identifying training needs, providing feedback to workers, making transfer and layoff decisions, and validating selection procedures.

Explanation:
Ergonomics (from Greek: ergon = work, nomos = laws) is the scientific study of the relationship between workers and their work environment. It aims to optimize human well-being (reduce fatigue, injury, and discomfort) and improve system performance (productivity, quality, safety). Also called Human Factors Engineering.

Explanation:
Value Analysis (VA) was developed by Lawrence D. Miles at General Electric in the late 1940s. It is a systematic approach to improving the value of a product or process by examining its functions and finding less costly ways to achieve those functions. Value = Function / Cost.

Explanation:
In Value Analysis: Value = Function / Cost. To improve value: increase function while keeping cost constant, decrease cost while keeping function constant, or increase function while decreasing cost. Types of value: Use value, Esteem value, Exchange value, and Cost value.

Explanation:
Standard output per day = Available time / Standard time per unit = 8 hours / 0.5 hours per unit = 16 units per day. This is the expected output if the worker performs at 100% efficiency. Standard output is used for production planning, capacity calculation, and performance evaluation.

Explanation:
Efficiency = Standard time / Actual time. Therefore: Actual time = Standard time / Efficiency = 15 / 0.80 = 18.75 minutes. The worker is performing at 80% efficiency, meaning they are slower than the standard pace.

Explanation:
Mean observed time = Sum / Number = (10 + 12 + 11 + 13 + 9) / 5 = 55 / 5 = 11 minutes. The mean is used as the representative observed time. Before calculating the mean, outliers (foreign elements) should be identified and removed.

Explanation:
Normal Pace (100% performance) is defined as the pace at which an average qualified worker can work without undue fatigue over a full working shift, day after day. It is the benchmark against which actual worker performance is compared during performance rating.

Explanation:
Normal Time = 0.5 x 0.90 = 0.45 minutes. Standard Time = 0.45 x (1 + 0.10) = 0.45 x 1.10 = 0.495 minutes. The performance rating of 90% means the worker is slower than normal, so normal time is less than observed time.

Explanation:
When allowances (A) are expressed as % of STANDARD TIME: ST = NT / (1 - A). Derivation: ST = NT + A x ST. ST(1 - A) = NT. ST = NT / (1 - A). Example: NT = 20 min, A = 20% of ST. ST = 20 / 0.80 = 25 minutes. When allowances are % of NORMAL TIME: ST = NT x (1 + A).

Explanation:
SIMO Chart (Simultaneous Motion Chart): A graphical representation of the simultaneous activities of both hands of a worker, recorded at the therblig level. Used in micro-motion study. Features: time scale on vertical axis, left hand activities on left side, right hand activities on right side. Used for highly repetitive, short-cycle operations.

Explanation:
Number of machines per worker: n = (Machine running time + Loading/unloading time) / (Loading/unloading time + Walking time between machines). This formula ensures the worker can service all machines without any machine waiting.

Explanation:
n = (Machine running time + Loading time) / (Loading time + Walking time) = (8 + 2) / (2 + 0.5) = 10 / 2.5 = 4 machines. Verification: Worker time per cycle = 4 x 2.5 = 10 minutes = Machine cycle time. No idle time for either worker or machines.

Explanation:
Techniques of Work Measurement: Time Study, Work Sampling, Predetermined Motion Time Systems (PMTS), Standard Data Method, Analytical Estimating, and Comparative Estimating. PERT and CPM are project scheduling techniques, NOT work measurement techniques. They are used for planning and scheduling projects.

Explanation:
In time study, the rating factor (performance rating) is expressed as a percentage where 100% represents NORMAL worker performance. Rating > 100%: worker is faster than normal. Rating < 100%: worker is slower than normal. Normal Time = Observed Time x (Rating / 100).

Explanation:
Normal Time = Observed Time x Performance Rating = 10 x (80/100) = 10 x 0.80 = 8 minutes. The worker is performing at 80% of normal pace (slower than normal). The normal time (8 minutes) is less than the observed time (10 minutes).

Explanation:
Personal Allowance is provided for personal needs such as toilet visits, drinking water, washing hands. Standard personal allowance is typically 5% of normal time (approximately 24 minutes in an 8-hour shift). ILO recommends 5% as a standard personal allowance. Fatigue allowance varies with job conditions. Delay allowance is determined by work sampling.

Explanation:
Cycle Time is the time for one complete cycle of a repetitive operation, from the start of one unit to the start of the next unit. It includes all operation elements, machine time, and any waiting time within the cycle. Cycle time is the basis for calculating standard time, determining production rate, and line balancing.

Explanation:
Takt Time = Available Production Time / Customer Demand Rate. 'Takt' is German for 'beat'. Example: Available time = 480 min/day, Customer demand = 240 units/day. Takt time = 480/240 = 2 min/unit. Used in lean manufacturing for production pacing and assembly line balancing.

Explanation:
Machine Utilization = (Actual hours worked / Available hours) x 100%. It measures the fraction of available time that the machine is actually being used. Utilization is different from efficiency: Efficiency = Standard hours produced / Actual hours worked. OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality.

Explanation:
EOQ = sqrt(2DS/H). Where D = Annual demand, S = Ordering cost per order, H = Holding cost per unit per year. At EOQ: Ordering cost = Holding cost. EOQ minimizes total inventory cost. Assumptions: constant demand, constant lead time, no stockouts, no quantity discounts, instantaneous replenishment.

Explanation:
EOQ = sqrt(2DS/H) = sqrt(2 x 1000 x 50 / 2) = sqrt(50000) = 223.6 approximately 224 units. Number of orders per year = 1000/224 = 4.46. Total annual cost = (1000/224)x50 + (224/2)x2 = 223.2 + 224 = Rs. 447.2.

Explanation:
Reorder Point (ROP) = Average demand during lead time + Safety stock = (d x L) + SS. Where d = average daily demand, L = lead time in days, SS = safety stock. Example: d = 10 units/day, L = 5 days, SS = 20 units. ROP = (10 x 5) + 20 = 70 units.

Explanation:
Critical Path: The longest path through the project network that determines the minimum project duration. Characteristics: zero total float (any delay on the critical path delays the entire project). Total Float = Latest Start Time - Earliest Start Time. Non-critical activities have positive total float.

Explanation:
PERT Expected Time: te = (a + 4m + b) / 6. Where a = optimistic time, m = most likely time, b = pessimistic time. Variance: sigma^2 = ((b - a) / 6)^2. PERT is used for projects with uncertain activity durations. CPM uses deterministic (single) time estimates.

Explanation:
Line Balancing: Assigning tasks to workstations such that precedence constraints are satisfied, cycle time constraint is met, and idle time is minimized. Line efficiency = (Sum of task times) / (Number of workstations x Cycle time) x 100%. Minimum workstations = ceil(Sum of task times / Cycle time).

Explanation:
Pareto Principle (80-20 Rule): 80% of effects come from 20% of causes. In productivity improvement: 80% of quality problems are caused by 20% of defect types; 80% of inventory value is in 20% of items (ABC analysis). Focus improvement efforts on the vital few (20%) causes that produce the majority (80%) of problems.

Explanation:
Fishbone Diagram (Cause-and-Effect Diagram, Ishikawa Diagram): A graphical tool for identifying and organizing potential causes of a problem. Common cause categories (6M): Man, Machine, Method, Material, Measurement, Mother Nature (environment). Part of the 7 basic quality tools.

Explanation:
ABC Analysis: Classifies inventory items based on annual consumption value. Class A: 10-20% of items, 70-80% of annual value - tight control. Class B: 30% of items, 15-25% of annual value - moderate control. Class C: 50-60% of items, 5-10% of annual value - simple control. Based on the Pareto principle.

Explanation:
Time and Motion Study was pioneered by: (1) F.W. Taylor (1856-1915): developed time study and scientific management principles; (2) Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924) and Lillian Gilbreth: developed motion study, micro-motion study, therbligs, and principles of motion economy.

Explanation:
Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management (1911): (1) Science, not rule of thumb: replace rule-of-thumb methods with scientifically determined best methods; (2) Scientific selection and training; (3) Cooperation between management and workers; (4) Equal division of work and responsibility.

Explanation:
Hawthorne Effect: The tendency of people to modify their behavior when they know they are being observed. Named after the Hawthorne Works studies by Elton Mayo (1924-1932). Implication for work study: time study results may be biased if workers perform differently when being timed.

Explanation:
Functional Foremanship was introduced by F.W. Taylor. He proposed replacing the single foreman with EIGHT specialized foremen: Route clerk, Instruction card clerk, Time and cost clerk, Shop disciplinarian, Gang boss, Speed boss, Repair boss, and Inspector. The idea was that no single person could be expert in all aspects of supervision.

Explanation:
Gantt Chart (Henry Gantt, 1910-1915): A bar chart for production scheduling and progress monitoring. Features: activities on vertical axis, time scale on horizontal axis, horizontal bars showing duration and schedule. Limitations: does not show dependencies between activities, difficult to update for complex projects.

Explanation:
Value Engineering Job Plan (Lawrence Miles): (1) INFORMATION phase: gather all relevant information; (2) FUNCTION ANALYSIS phase: identify and analyze functions using FAST diagram; (3) CREATIVE phase: brainstorm alternatives; (4) EVALUATION phase: evaluate alternatives; (5) DEVELOPMENT phase: develop best alternatives; (6) PRESENTATION phase: present recommendations.

Explanation:
Productivity = Output / Input. Productivity can be improved by: (1) Increasing output while keeping inputs constant; (2) Decreasing inputs while keeping output constant; (3) Increasing output more than the increase in inputs; (4) Decreasing inputs more than the decrease in output. All scenarios result in a higher Output/Input ratio.

Explanation:
Merrick Differential Piece Rate System (D.C. Merrick): Uses THREE piece rates: (1) Low piece rate (83% of standard rate): for workers producing less than 83% of standard output; (2) Medium piece rate (100% of standard rate): for workers producing 83-100% of standard output; (3) High piece rate (120% of standard rate): for workers producing more than 100% of standard output.

Explanation:
Scanlon Plan (Joseph Scanlon, 1930s): A group incentive plan based on labour cost savings. Bonus pool = Savings in labour costs compared to a historical ratio of labour costs to sales value. Bonus shared among all employees. Promotes teamwork, employee involvement, and continuous improvement.

Explanation:
Bedaux Point System (Charles Bedaux, 1916): Uses 'B' (Bedaux unit). 1 B = 1 minute of work at normal pace (including allowances). Standard output = 60 B per hour. Worker's efficiency = (B points earned / 60) x 100%. Bonus for B points earned above 60 per hour.

Explanation:
Emerson Efficiency Plan (H. Emerson): Bonus starts when efficiency exceeds 66.67% (two-thirds of standard). Below 66.67%: worker receives only day wage. Between 66.67% and 100%: graduated bonus. At 100% efficiency: bonus = 20% of day wage. Above 100%: bonus increases proportionally.

Explanation:
Learning Curve (Experience Curve): As cumulative production doubles, the time per unit decreases by a constant percentage. For an 80% learning curve: when cumulative production doubles, time per unit becomes 80% of the previous time. Formula: T_n = T_1 x n^b, where b = log(learning rate)/log(2).

Explanation:
For an 80% learning curve: 1st unit: 100 hours. 2nd unit (1st doubling): 100 x 0.80 = 80 hours. 4th unit (2nd doubling): 80 x 0.80 = 64 hours. 8th unit (3rd doubling): 64 x 0.80 = 51.2 hours. The 4th unit takes 64 hours.

Explanation:
Process Capability Index Cp = (USL - LSL) / 6sigma. Where USL = Upper Specification Limit, LSL = Lower Specification Limit, sigma = process standard deviation. Cp = 1: process spread equals specification width. Cp > 1: process is capable. Cp < 1: process is not capable. For Six Sigma quality: Cp = 2.

Explanation:
Control Chart (Shewhart Chart, 1924): Components: Center line (CL), Upper Control Limit (UCL = CL + 3sigma), Lower Control Limit (LCL = CL - 3sigma). Purpose: distinguish between Common Cause variation (inherent, random) and Special Cause variation (assignable, non-random). Types: X-bar and R chart, p-chart, c-chart.

Explanation:
A String Diagram is a scale plan of the workplace on which a thread is used to trace and measure the path of a worker, material, or equipment. Used to: show actual path of movement, measure total distance traveled, identify unnecessary movements, compare alternative layouts, and improve workplace layout.

Explanation:
Two-Handed Process Chart (Left-Hand Right-Hand Chart): Records the activities of BOTH HANDS of a single worker simultaneously on a time scale. Uses the same five symbols as a flow process chart applied to each hand separately. Particularly useful for assembly operations, packaging, and other manual operations.

Explanation:
Travel Chart (From-To Chart): A matrix showing the volume (or frequency) of material flow between all pairs of departments or workstations. Used for evaluating alternative plant layouts, identifying high-traffic flows, calculating total material handling cost, and systematic layout planning (SLP).

Explanation:
In MTM, the time for a REACH (R) motion depends on: (1) Distance of reach; (2) Type of reach: Case A (fixed location), Case B (single object, variable location), Case C (jumbled objects), Case D (very small object), Case E (indefinite location). MTM tables give times in TMU for each combination.

Explanation:
MOST (Maynard Operation Sequence Technique) is approximately 40-50 times faster to apply than MTM-1. MOST uses three sequence models: (1) General Move: A-B-G-A-B-P-A; (2) Controlled Move: A-B-G-M-X-I-A; (3) Tool Use sequence. Each parameter is assigned an index value (0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 16). Total time = Sum of index values x 10 TMU.

Explanation:
Job Enrichment (Frederick Herzberg): Adding more challenging, meaningful, and responsible tasks to a job (vertical loading). Increases task variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Job Enrichment vs. Job Enlargement: Enlargement = horizontal loading (more tasks of same level); Enrichment = vertical loading (higher-level tasks).

Explanation:
Gilbreth's Classification of Motions: Class 1: Finger motions only; Class 2: Finger and wrist motions; Class 3: Finger, wrist, and forearm motions; Class 4: Finger, wrist, forearm, and upper arm motions; Class 5: Finger, wrist, forearm, upper arm, and shoulder motions. Lower class motions are faster and less fatiguing.

Explanation:
Westinghouse System: The algebraic sum of all four factor ratings (Skill + Effort + Conditions + Consistency) is added to 1.00 to get the performance rating factor. Example: Sum = +0.14. Performance Rating = 1.00 + 0.14 = 1.14 (114%). Normal Time = Observed Time x 1.14.

Explanation:
Delay Allowance (Unavoidable Delay Allowance) is determined by conducting a WORK SAMPLING study over a representative period (typically several days or weeks). The work sampling study records the frequency of unavoidable delays and calculates the percentage of time spent in delays. This percentage becomes the delay allowance.

Explanation:
Standard Data for machining operations (like drilling) is expressed as a function of relevant numerical parameters: (1) Hole diameter: larger diameter = more time; (2) Hole depth: deeper hole = more time; (3) Material: harder material = slower cutting speed = more time; (4) Surface finish required. Standard data tables or regression equations relate these parameters to machining time.

Explanation:
MTM (Methods-Time Measurement) was developed in 1948 by H.B. Maynard, G.J. Stegemerten, and J.L. Schwab at the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Key milestones: 1948: MTM-1 published; 1965: MTM-2 (simplified); 1970: MTM-3 (further simplified); 1985: MOST developed by Kjell Zandin.

Explanation:
Work Factor System: A Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS) developed by J.H. Quick, W.J. Shea, and R.E. Koehler at RCA in the 1930s. Uses 'work factors' to account for difficulty of motion (weight, precision, change of direction, care). Basic time unit: 0.0001 minute.

Explanation:
Rucker Plan (Allen Rucker): Similar to Scanlon Plan but uses the ratio of labour cost to VALUE ADDED (not sales) as the basis for bonus calculation. Value Added = Sales - Cost of purchased materials and services. Advantage: Value added is not affected by changes in material costs, making the bonus more directly related to employee productivity.

Explanation:
Emerson Efficiency Plan: At 100% efficiency: bonus = 20% of day wage. Above 100%: bonus increases proportionally. The maximum practical bonus point is at 133.33% efficiency where the bonus equals the day wage (100% bonus). At 133.33% efficiency, total earnings = 2 x day wage.

Explanation:
Rowan Plan: Earnings = Actual time x Wage rate x (2 - Actual time / Standard time). To find maximum: dE/d(Actual time) = 0. Let t = actual time, S = standard time. E = tw(2S-t)/S. dE/dt = w(2S-2t)/S = 0. t = S/2. Maximum earnings occur when actual time = S/2 (half of standard time).

Explanation:
FAST (Function Analysis System Technique) Diagram: A graphical tool to organize and display functions in a logical hierarchy. Answers: 'HOW is the function performed?' (moving right) and 'WHY is the function performed?' (moving left). Helps identify all functions, understand relationships, identify unnecessary functions, and focus cost reduction efforts.

Explanation:
Direct Labour: workers who directly work on the product (machine operators, assemblers, welders). Indirect Labour: workers who support production but do not directly work on the product. Examples: maintenance workers, material handlers, supervisors, quality inspectors, tool room workers. Indirect labour costs are overhead costs.

Explanation:
Break-Even Point (BEP): Total Revenue = Total Cost (Fixed Cost + Variable Cost). At BEP, profit = 0. BEP (in units) = Fixed Cost / (Selling Price per unit - Variable Cost per unit) = Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit. Above BEP: profit zone. Below BEP: loss zone.

Explanation:
Standard Hour: A unit of measurement representing the amount of work that should be done in one hour at standard performance (100% efficiency). Used to: compare output of different jobs, calculate worker efficiency (Efficiency = Standard hours produced / Actual hours worked), calculate incentive wages, and measure departmental productivity.

Explanation:
Snap-Back (Reset) Method: The stopwatch is read at the end of each element and immediately snapped back (reset) to zero. The reading gives the time for that element directly. Advantages: easy to detect unusual elements, easy to calculate element times. Disadvantages: time is lost during snap-back, cumulative errors.

Explanation:
Foreign Elements in time study are activities that are NOT part of the regular job cycle. They occur irregularly and should NOT be included in the standard time calculation. Examples: machine breakdown, material shortage, receiving instructions from supervisor. When a foreign element occurs, the analyst notes it separately and excludes it from normal time calculation.

Explanation:
Principles of Motion Economy (Frank Gilbreth, refined by Barnes) are grouped into three categories: (1) Use of Human Body: both hands should begin and end motions simultaneously, use lowest classification of body movement; (2) Arrangement of Workplace: fixed locations for tools and materials; (3) Design of Tools and Equipment: combine tools, use foot pedals.

Explanation:
Principles of Motion Economy are grouped into three categories: (1) USE OF THE HUMAN BODY: both hands should begin and end motions simultaneously, both hands should not be idle at the same time, motions of arms should be in opposite and symmetrical directions; (2) ARRANGEMENT OF WORKPLACE; (3) DESIGN OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT.

Explanation:
Standard Time is valid for: A QUALIFIED worker (trained, experienced) performing the job using the SPECIFIED METHOD under SPECIFIED CONDITIONS (normal working conditions). Key assumptions: worker is qualified and trained, specified method is followed, normal working conditions prevail, worker performs at 100% efficiency.

Explanation:
Work Content: The total amount of work in a job measured in standard hours. It represents the time a qualified worker would take to complete the job at standard performance, including all allowances. Work content = Basic work content + Excess work content. Reducing excess work content is the goal of work study.

Explanation:
National-level productivity is measured by: (1) Labour productivity = GDP / Total employment (GDP per worker) or GDP / Total hours worked (GDP per hour worked); (2) Total Factor Productivity (TFP) = GDP / (Weighted combination of all inputs). GDP per hour worked is the most internationally comparable measure.

Explanation:
Machine Capacity (in standard hours) = Available hours x Utilization x Efficiency. Where: Available hours = total hours the machine is available; Utilization = fraction of available time the machine is actually running; Efficiency = ratio of standard hours produced to actual hours run. This gives the effective capacity in standard hours.

Explanation:
The SELECT step in Method Study/Time Study involves choosing which job or operation to study. Selection criteria: high cost operations, bottleneck operations, operations with high scrap or rework rates, operations with safety hazards, operations with worker complaints, new operations, and operations with high overtime.

Explanation:
Delphi Method: A structured communication technique for forecasting and decision-making that relies on a panel of experts. Process: (1) Select experts; (2) Send questionnaire; (3) Summarize responses and send back anonymously; (4) Experts revise estimates; (5) Repeat until consensus. Eliminates group dynamics and encourages honest opinions.

Explanation:
Float (Slack) = the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the project completion. Total Float = Latest Start Time - Earliest Start Time = Latest Finish Time - Earliest Finish Time. Free Float = Earliest Start Time of successor - Earliest Finish Time of activity. Critical activities have zero total float.

Explanation:
Synthetic Time (Synthesis): Time values obtained from predetermined motion time systems (PMTS like MTM, MOST) or from standard data tables compiled from previous time studies. Advantages: no stopwatch needed, can be established before the job starts, consistent standards, useful for new jobs, eliminates performance rating subjectivity.

Explanation:
Coefficient of Variation (CV) = (Standard Deviation / Mean) x 100%. In time study, CV assesses the consistency of observed times. High CV indicates high variability, suggesting more observations may be needed or the job may not be well-defined. CV is also used to determine required number of observations: n = (Z x CV / e)^2.

Explanation:
According to ergonomic guidelines and international standards (ILO, NIOSH): Maximum acceptable weight for manual lifting for males: approximately 25 kg (55 lbs) under ideal conditions. For females: approximately 16 kg (35 lbs). The NIOSH Lifting Equation calculates the Recommended Weight Limit (RWL) based on horizontal distance, vertical height, frequency, and coupling.

Explanation:
Point Rating Method of Job Evaluation uses compensable factors. The four main compensable factor groups (NEMA/NMTA system): (1) SKILL: education, experience, initiative; (2) EFFORT: physical demand, mental demand; (3) RESPONSIBILITY: for equipment, material, safety, work of others; (4) JOB CONDITIONS: working conditions, hazards. Worker's age is NOT a compensable factor as it would be discriminatory.

Explanation:
Gantt Task and Bonus Plan (H.L. Gantt): (1) Below standard output: worker receives guaranteed day wage only; (2) AT standard output: worker receives day wage + 20% BONUS; (3) Above standard output: worker receives high piece rate (120-130% of normal). The 20% bonus at standard output is a key feature of this plan.

Explanation:
Work Sampling (Activity Sampling or Ratio Delay Study) was developed by L.H.C. Tippett in 1934 at the British Cotton Industry Research Association. He applied statistical sampling theory to work measurement. The technique was later popularized by R.L. Morrow in the USA. It is based on the statistical principle that a random sample is representative of the population.

Explanation:
Elemental Time Study (Stop-Watch Time Study) involves: (1) Breaking the job into distinct elements; (2) Timing each element separately using a stopwatch; (3) Rating the worker's performance for each element; (4) Calculating normal time for each element; (5) Adding allowances to get standard time; (6) Summing element standard times to get total standard time.

Explanation:
Productivity improvement through automation should be measured by the increase in output per unit of TOTAL input (multi-factor productivity), not just labour productivity. Automation increases capital input while reducing labour input. True productivity improvement = more output from the same total resources (labour + capital + materials + energy).

Explanation:
Standard output in 8 hours = 480 min / 30 min per unit = 16 units. Actual output = 20 units. Efficiency = (Actual output / Standard output) x 100% = (20/16) x 100% = 125%. The worker produced more than the standard output, so efficiency exceeds 100%.

Explanation:
Frank Gilbreth's Micro-Motion Study uses: (1) High-speed camera: records worker's motions on film; (2) Microchronometer: a clock with a large face placed in the field of view of the camera, allowing time to be read from the film frames. The film is analyzed frame by frame to identify and time each therblig (basic motion).

Explanation:
Advantages of Work Sampling over Time Study: (1) Multiple workers/machines can be studied simultaneously; (2) No stopwatch required; (3) Less disruptive - workers are less conscious of being observed; (4) Suitable for long-cycle, irregular, or non-repetitive jobs; (5) Less expensive for long studies; (6) Analyst can do other work between observations.